Geographic Major and Minor Faults of Pakistan

Geographic Major and Minor Faults of Pakistan Introduction: Pakistan is geographically situated in such a way that it consist of parts of two major and one minor plate namely Indian plate Eurasian plate Arabian plate Here Indian and Eurasian plates are major plates while Arabian plate is a minor plate which lies in the southern most side of Pakistan, while Indian plate is present on the eastern part and Eurasian plate includes the north western part of Pakistan. Therefore triple junction point is located within Pakistan (a point where three plate boundaries meet). Pakistan is a host of several minor and five major faults which runs across it they are due to the previous tectonic events which occurred in this zone the major and most important event which resulted in the formation of the five major faults and is perhaps the reason of minor faults and is sill affecting the geology and tectonics of Pakistan is the famous Himalayan orogeny which itself formed as a result of Indian and Eurasian plate collision in about 20 million years ago because of the continental – continental collision . Basically Indian plate which was situated within the Australian plate in gondwanaland and started moving towards north in a counter clockwise direction Neo Tethys Ocean was present between Eurasian and Indian plate a segment of this ocean started subducting beneath the Tethys ocean on its either sides/boundaries creating intra-oceanic island arcs due to the northward movement of Indian plate this arc collided with the southern Eurasia forming the continental-magmatic arc suture zone because of this collision folding thrusting occurred forming two major blocks Karakorum block and the kohistan ladakh arc (KIA) separated by MKT Main Karakorum Thrust. During the same time period rest of the Tethys ocean subducted beneath the Eurasian plate which afterwards caused the collision of Indian and Eurasian plate forming Himalayas this again resulted in the formation of thrust faults and fold the first major thrust fault which was formed here was the MCT (its branch in Pakistan is called MMT) th is was north wards dipping later on after its formation stresses shifted southwards and another active fault called MBT (Main Boundary Thrust) was formed by the under thrusting of rocks beneath the MCT, Later on stresses shifted further southwards leading to the formation of SRT. Major Faults of Pakistan Major Faults of Pakistan are as follows:- The Main Karakoram Thrust Fault(MKT) The Main Mantle Thrust Fault(MMT) The Main Central Thrust Fault(MCT) Salt Range Thrust Fault(SRT) The Main Boundry Thrust(MBT) Chamman Transform Fault(CTF) The Main Karakoram Thrust Fault (MKT):- The main Karakorum thrust fault was formed in cretaceous period (Coward et al. 1986) in the result of the collision between Kohistan Ladakh Arc and the Karakoram block about 70-100mya. Later on it was declared as a North Suture (Pudsey et al. 1985.) The Main Mantle Thrust Fault:- It is a regional thrust that is dipping in the north direction and it seperates the Indian plate from the Kohistan Island Arc. Area covered by MMT is 400 sq. km approximately and passes through the districts of Diyamir, Kohistan, Swat, Dir and Bajaur with a total length of 420 miles. It is extended from the region of Khar (Bajaur Agency) in west to the region of Naran in the east. Composition of MMT is more than 15 km thick Proterozoic gneisses and schists (Madin, 1986). The Main Central Thrust (MCT):- â€Å"The  Main Central Thrust  is a thrust fault which is dipping in a north direction and covers about an area of 2200km along the Himalayan mountain range. This thrust fault was first described by Heim and Gansser (1939) when they noted a contact between terrigenous carbonate rocks and thick overlying metamorphic rocks, mica schists and gneiss (Sinha 1987). It marks the boundary between the higher and lesser Himalayan mountains. It is a longitudinal thrust fault, and in many places is marked by a several kilometer thick zone of deformed rocks with varying degrees of shearing and imbrication (Sorkhabi 1999). Mylonitization and retrograde metamorphic assemblages also occur here. The MCT is the actual suture between Gondwanaland (India) and the Proto-Tehtys microcontinent to the north (Spikantia 1987). Movement along the fault has brought crystalline rock from the Higher Himalayan zone on top of Lesser Paleozoic sediments in the form of klippen in synclines (Windley 1995). These units are called the Outer Crystallines, as noted above on the map. Outer crystalline rocks, garnet and kyanite-bearing, were exposed by slip along the MCT followed by uplift and erosion of 10km of overlying rock (Molnar 1986).† The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT):- The Main Boundary Thrust is a different and paramount tectonic peculiarity along the whole Himalayan Belt. The MBT circles around the Hazara syntaxial zone. It speaks to the real zone of late disfigurement and the biggest seismic tremors. The MBT extends from the Afghan outskirt, and can be followed about constantly to the Assam through Eastern India. It is the absolute most strong tremor source in the Himalayas. Islamabadrawalpindi region is spotted at a nearby separation south of the western appendage of the MBT. MBT and MMT are for the most part considered to have distinctive sections while ascertaining the related seismic danger. The hanging wall of MBT carries the pre-collisional Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks of the Northern Deformed Fold and Thrust Belt and post collisional folded Miocene foreland basin deposits in its footwall. The Salt Range Thrust (SRT):- SRT encapsulates southern edge of Salt range separating the Jhelum and the Indus rivers. SRT terminates in the west against Kalabagh fault and its eastern termination is near the right bank of Jhelum river. Chaman Fault:- The Chaman Fault is a real, dynamic geographical blame in Pakistan and Afghanistan that runs in excess of 850 km. Tectonically, it is really an arrangement of related geologic blames that divides the Eurasian Plate from the Indo-Australian Plate. It is a physical, essentially change, left-sidelong strike-slip deficiency. The slippage rate along the Chaman flaw framework as the Indo-Australian Plate moves northward (in respect to the Eurasian Plate) has been assessed at 10 mm/yr or more. Notwithstanding its essential change angle, the Chaman deficiency framework has a compressional segment as the Indian Plate is impacting the Eurasian Plate. This sort of plate limit is now and again called a transpressional limit. From the south, the Chaman shortcoming begins at the triple intersection where the Arabian Plate, the Eurasian Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate meet, which is just off the Makran Coast of Pakistan. The flaw tracks northeast crosswise over Balochistan and afterward north-northeast into Afghanistan, runs just to the west of Kabul, and after that northeastward over the right-horizontal slip Herat deficiency, up to where it blends with the Pamir shortcoming framework north of the 38 º parallel. The Ghazaband and Ornach-Nal flaws are regularly included as a feature of the Chaman issue framework. South of the triple intersection, where the deficiency zone lies undersea and stretches out southwest to give or take 10 ºn 57 ºe, it is known as the Owen Fracture Zone. While there is general understanding that the shortcoming is slipping at a rate of no less than 10 mm/yr, there is a report of volcanic shakes in Pakistan dated to 2 m.y. BP which have been balanced, for example, to show a slip rate of 25–35 mm/yr. Balances have been depicted all through the flaw in Pakistan that are adolescent enough that just the alluvium of the base of dynamic dry washes is not removed. The parallel mountain scopes of eastern Balochistan, (east to west) the Kirthar Mountains, the Khude Mountains, the Zarro Mountains, the Pab Mountains and the Mor Mountains, are a consequence of the compressional plate limit and are adjusted parallel to the Chaman deficiency development. The issue itself is west of these ex Minor Thrust Faults of Pakistan:- Some of the minor faults of Pakistan are as follows Margalla Fault:- It is a critical shortcoming, which runs along NE-SW course and joins the principle limit pushed (MBT) in the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxial zone. It passes north of Islamabad on the southern piedmont inclines of the Margalla Hills. As a consequence of this blame, the Datta development and the Samanasuk limestone are thrusted over the Lockhart limestone. There is no record or evidence of any late development along the Margalla shortcoming. Punjal Thrust:- Punjal push Fault is a noteworthy dynamic tectonic normal for some territorial significance. It likewise included a few fragments. This flaw meets the Khairabad shortcoming arranged on Northern Attock Cherat range. That is why, it is otherwise called Punjal- Khairabad push. Kalabagh fault:- It is a noticeable right-sidelong strike-slip issue which stretches out between Kalabagh and Mianwali. It truncates at the western edge of the Salt Range. Kurram Fault:- Kurram Thrust is a NNE-WSW inclining north-ward dipping dynamic tectonic peculiarity dividing the Kakar Khorsan Flysh bowl in the north and the west from Bela Ophiolite pushed and fold sash in the east and south. Sulaiman Range Fault:- In Sulaiman range, two left-parallel wrench faults eastern and western edge of the extent have been distinguished. On the eastern side, two faults constitute a left-parallel deficiency framework having Chaudhan fault and Domanda fault. On the western side, there are three N-S trending faults constituting a left-sidelong blame framework. These shortcomings involve Thakht-e- Sulaiman fault, Manikhawa shortcoming fault, and Moghulkot fault. Kirthar Fault:- Kirthar fault is very much a quite prominent N-S inclining lineament on the satellite symbolism. Kirthar fault alongside the other N-S inclining en-chelon fault of the Kirthar reach front and foothills are considered seismically dynamic. Various earthquake epicenters are spotted in this area, which have been connected with this fault. Ghazaband Fault:- Orientation of this fault is NE-SW, which is located within the vicinity of Ghazaband Pass Kirdgap region. At some points the fault is concealed under the alluvium. In Southward it combines with Chaman/Oranch-Nal transform fault system. Pab Fault The trend of Pab fault is NE-SW that is found along the western boundary of Khude fold belt. Pab thrust is positive seismically and is located N-W of the Karachi. Hoshab Fault Hoshab shortcoming is one of numerous significant push shortcomings which partition the Makran locale into a number of push bound pieces. Hoshab deficiency is arranged in the Makan union zone, which is a strongly distorted, east-west inclining overlap and push sash. This shortcoming has an circular segment shape having east-west inclining close to the Nasirabad and Hoshab zones, however eastward it swings to the north-east until it runs parallel to Mashkai rud. Nai Rud Fault It is one of the active thrust faults .It is trending E-W and found within the vicinity of fold and thrust belts, pertaining to the Makran convergence zone Nai-Rud fault has a  NE-SW trending, runs parallel to the Nai Rud valley and bears the left-lateral strike-slip component. Run of Kutch Fault:- Run of Kutch is a dynamic deficiency of territorial degree having an east-west direction. The  augmentations of this fault in the east as well as the west may be, actually, not all that overall characterized. On the other hand, two essential conceivable outcomes have been recommended as such; for east ward expansion, either blame reaches out along the hub of the incredible Run of Kutch or it stretches out to 50 km east of post Sidry, where it bends North-east-ward to take after the geomorphic limit between the Thar desert and the extraordinary Run of Kutch. It is seismically dynamic, which is apparent by a few major and minor quakes related to this local tectonic limit. References:- Geology and tectonics of Pakistan 1997 by A. H. Kazmi and M. Q. Jan http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Central_Thrust http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/1486S-5.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaman_Fault http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo5xx/geo527/Himalayas/geology.html

Eprecision Manufacturing Company Essay

In a recent staff meeting, John Winkleman, president of ePrecision Manufacturing Company, addressed his managers with this problem: Intense competitive pressure is beginning to erode our market share in handhelds. I have documented 11 large orders that have been lost to Beckman and Wiston within the past three months. On an annual basis this amounts to nearly 10,000 units and $1.5 million in lost opportunities. Within the last 18 months, at least 16 serious competitors have entered the market. Two thirds of these DMMs have continuity indicators. The trend is the same for European and Japanese markets as well. Our sales of handheld DMMs in fiscal year 20_1 is forecast to grow only 1.7 percent. According to Dataquest projections, the handheld DMM market will grow 20.9 percent for the next five years. I think that figure is conservative. Our competitors are gaining attention and sales with added features, particularly at the present time with continuity indicators. Since a new el’recision general-purpose, low-cost handheld is two years from introduction, it is important that something be done to retain the profitable position of market leader in our traditional direct and distributor channels. Next meeting I want s?me ideas. The ePrecision Manufacturing Company is a major electronics manufacturer in the Northwest of USA, producing many varied products. The three products that most concern Mr. Winkleman are the Series A handheld digital multi meters (DMMs). As an innovator in the field of handheld DMMS, Mr. Winkleman saw his business flourish over the last two years. But now, with his three most successful products in late stages of maturity and a recession in _ full swing, times are not looking as rosy. The three multimeters of concern are model numbers 1010, 1020, and 1030. These three models form a complementary family line. The 1010 is a low-cost unit containing all standard measurement functions and having a basic measurement accuracy of .5 percent. The 1020 offers identical measurement functions but has an improved basic measurement accuracy of .1 percent. The top of the line is the 1030. In addition to a basic accuracy of .1 percent, the 1030 offers several additional features, one being an audible continuity indicator. (See Exhibit 1 for sales and projected sales of these three models.) EXHIBIT 1 Selected sales and projections Model 1020 1010 1030 Total FY 20 0 actual 67,534 37,455 25,602 130,591 (number of units) What we need is a face-lift of our existing product line to hold us over the next two years. Changes in color, a new decal, some minor case modifications, and most important an audible continuity indicator in the 1010 and 1020 should give us two more years of product life to tide us over. We can call this Series B to retain continuity in switching from the old to the new. As my analysis indicates, ePrecision’s decline in 101011020 sales could be reversed and show a modest increase in market share over the next two years with the inclusion of the Series B features [see Exhibit 2]. Discussions with large-order customers indicate that ePrecision could have won 40-60 percent of the lost large orders that were mentioned at our last meeting if our entire handheld family featured audible continuity. As you well know, the popularity of continuity indication has been confirmed in several other studies conducted over the past two years. An estimate of sales of Series B has been generated from inputs from field sales, distribution managers, and discussions with customers. Conservative estimates indicate that sales of Series B will increase 6.9 percent above current Series A levels, with a marginal revenue increase of $1.5 million at Us. list, and assuming the same list prices as the current Series A models. * Dollars During this current period of tight economic conditions, the market is becoming increasingly price sensitive. I am aware that our normal policy dictates multiplying the factory cost by three for pricing purposes and that the added factory cost of an audible continuity indicator is $5.00,. but for income purposes we should not tack this on to the current prices. My analysis indicates that an increase of $5.00 would reduce incremental sales by 20 percent, and an increase of $10.00 would reduce incremental sales by 80 percent. JR1024 EXHIBIT 3 Engineering Costs and Schedule The objectives for Series B, Models 1010, 1020, and 1030, are: †¢ All case parts moulded in medium grey †¢ New decal for all units †¢ Pulse-stretched beeper for 1010 and 1020 †¢ Rubber foot on battery door †¢ Positionable bail †¢ Manuals updated as necessary For these objectives, NRE costs will be: Manual (updated schematics for 1010, 1020, along with instructions for operation of beeper; model number and front panel changes for all units) Battery door mould (add three units) Battery door foot die Decal Bail improvement Photo lab PCB fab (prototypes) Engineering labour (25 person-weeks) Also remember that we must pay for some nonrecurring engineering costs (NRE) [see Exhibit 3]. These must come out of our contribution margin-which at el’recision is calculated by taking the total dollar sales less the 28 percent discount to distributors less factory cost for those units. I believe that increasing these prices will reduce our margins significantly, hindering our ability to cover the NRE, let alone make a profit. Therefore I propose we go ahead with Series B and hold the line on prices. Dennis Cambelot, a longtime ePrecision employee, spoke up with a comment on Dave’s proposal: Dave, I think this Series B idea shows a lot of potential, but pricewise you are way out of line. We have always added the standard markup to our products. We make quality products, and people are willing to pay for quality. The only thing your fancy MB.A. degree taught you was to be impractical. If you had gotten your experience in the trenches like me, your pricing theories would not be so conservative, and this company could make more money. At the close of the meeting, Mr. Winkleman asked that each manager consider the Series B proposal. He directed that this consideration include: (1) whether or not to adopt the B series; (2) if yes, at what price level; (3) alternative suggestions.

A Discussion on the Necessity of Mothers Essay - 2628 Words

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My Life At Van De Walle Architects - 1065 Words

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